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Öğe Investigation of the effect of height difference and geometry of GCP on position accuracy of point cloud in UAV photogrammetry(21.02.2023) Hastaoğlu, Kemal Özgür; Kapıcıoğlu, Hacer Şura; Gül, Yavuz; Poyraz, FatihIn this study, the effect of the height difference, geometry, and number of GCPs on the positional accuracy of point cloud was investigated in UAV photogrammetry. It has been determined that the topographic change of the study area, the geometric structure of GCPs, and the distance between GCPs are the most important factors in GCP network design. It was observed that the GCP network design is more important than the number of GCPs in the UAV Photogrammetry method to increase the positional accuracy.Öğe Characterization of the co-seismic pattern and slip distribution of the February 06, 2023, Kahramanmaras¸ (Turkey) earthquakes (Mw 7.7 and Mw 7.6) with a dense GNSS network(18.09.2023) Özkan, Ali; Solak, Halil İbrahim; Tiryakioğlu, İbrahim; Şentürk, Murat Doruk; Aktuğ, Bahadır; Gezgin, Cemil; Poyraz, Fatih; Duman, Hüseyin; Masson, Frederic; Uslular, Göksu; Yiğit, Cemal Özer; Yavaşoğlu, Hasan HakanTwo consecutive earthquakes with the magnitudes of Mw 7.7 and 7.6 (February 06, 2023) occurred on the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) segments and unfortunately resulted in significant devastation to human life and cities in Turkey and Syria. In this study, we aimed to analyse the co-seismic displacements and fault slip distributions of these seismic events. Our unique high-spatial-resolution Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) network (comprising 73 permanent GNSS stations and 40 campaign observation sites), providing the recent geodetic dataset for the region, allows better constraint of the co-seismic surface displacements and slip distributions of both earthquakes. The three largest total displacements were identified as 466 cm, 362 cm, and 360 cm. The Fault interactions along the EAFZ were obvious during the consecutive earthquakes. The ruptures mainly occurred in the left-lateral components of the fault segments, with the maximum slips of 7.25 m and 9.43 m for the first event along the EAFZ and the second event on the Çardak Fault, respectively.Öğe Static and kinematic PPP-AR performance of low-cost GNSS receiver in monitoring displacements(01.12.2023) Öğütçü, Sermet; Alçay, Salih; Duman, Hüseyin; Özdemir, Behlül Numan; Konukseven, CerenRecently, low-cost GNSS receivers have played a significant role in displacement monitoring studies due to the increasing availability of mass-market applications. In this work, the performance of static and kinematic PPP-AR using a low-cost u-blox ZED-F9P GNSS receiver in monitoring displacements is investigated by comparing it with a geodetic-grade GNSS receiver using a displacement simula-tion apparatus. The capability to determine the horizontal displacement direction is also investigated for both receivers. The results showed that one-sigma horizontal / vertical RMSEs computed from the true displacements and computed displacements are 1.4 / 5.6 mm and 2.6 / 8.4 mm for the geodetic and u-blox receivers, respectively, using 24-h data with static GPS + GLONASS PPP-AR. It is found that GLONASS contribution to GPS-only static PPP is more evident for the u-blox receiver compared with the geodetic one. RMSEs are found to be higher as observation times are decreased. The post-processed kinematic test results showed that minimum 10 / 20 and 20 / 30 mm horizontal / vertical dynamic displacements can be visually detected as an offset from the daily time series for the geodetic and u-blox receivers, respectively.Öğe Determination of periodic deformation from InSAR results using the FFT time series analysis method in Gediz Graben(17.03.2023) Hastaoğlu, Kemal Özgür; Poyraz, Fatih; Erdoğan, Hediye; Tiryakioğlu, İbrahim; Özkaymak, Çağlar; Duman, Hüseyin; Gül, Yavuz; Güler, Süleyman; Doğan, Alperen; Gül, YavuzPermanent Scatterers (PS) point velocities obtained by the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) method are generally determined using the linear regression model, which ignores periodic and seasonal effects. In this study, software was developed that can detect periodic effects by applying fast Fourier transformation (FFT) time series analysis to InSAR results. Using the FFT time series analysis, the periodic components of the surface movements at the PS points were determined, and then the annual velocity values free from periodic effects were obtained. The study area was chosen as the Gediz Graben, a tectonically active region where aseismic surface deformations have been observed in recent years. As a result, using the developed method, seasonal effects were successfully determined with the InSAR method at the PS points in the study area with a period of 384 days and an average amplitude of 19 mm. In addition, groundwater level changes of a water well in the region were modeled, and 0.93 correlation coefficient values were calculated between seasonal InSAR displacement values and water level changes. Thus, using the developed methodology, the relationship between the tectonic movement in the Gediz Graben in Turkey and the seasonal movements and the change in the groundwater level was determined.Öğe On the Impact of GPS Multipath Correction Maps and Post-Fit Residuals on Slant Wet Delays for Tracking Severe Weather Events(20.03.2023) Hunegnaw, Addisu; Duman, Hüseyin; Ejigu, Yohannes Getachew; Baltacı, Hakkı; Dousa, Jan; Teferle, Felix NormanClimate change has increased the frequency and intensity of weather events with heavy precipitation, making communities worldwide more vulnerable to flash flooding. As a result, accurate fore-and nowcasting of impending excessive rainfall is crucial for warning and mitigating these hydro-meteorological hazards. The measurement of integrated water vapour along slant paths is made possible by ground-based global positioning system (GPS) receiver networks, delivering three-dimensional (3D) water vapour distributions at low cost and in real-time. As a result, these data are an invaluable supplementary source of knowledge for monitoring storm events and determining their paths. However, it is generally known that multipath effects at GPS stations have an influence on incoming signals, particularly at low elevations. Although estimates of zenith total delay and horizontal linear gradients make up the majority of the GPS products for meteorology to date, these products are not sufficient for understanding the full 3D distribution of water vapour above a station. Direct utilization of slant delays can address this lack of azimuthal information, although, at low elevations it is more prone to multipath (MP) errors. This study uses the convective storm event that happened on 27 July 2017 over Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which caused flash floods and severe damage, to examine the effects of multipath-corrected slant wet delay (SWD) estimations on monitoring severe weather events. First, we reconstructed the one-way SWD by adding GPS post-fit phase residuals, describing the anisotropic component of the SWD. Because MP errors in the GPS phase observables can considerably impact SWD from individual satellites, we used an averaging technique to build station-specific MP correction maps by stacking the post-fit phase residuals acquired from a precise point positioning (PPP) processing strategy. The stacking was created by spatially organizing the residuals into congruent cells with an optimal resolution in terms of the elevation and azimuth at the local horizon.This enables approximately equal numbers of post-fit residuals to be distributed across each congruent cell. Finally, using these MP correction maps, the one-way SWD was improved for use in the weather event analysis. We found that the anisotropic component of the one-way SWD accounts for up to 20% of the overall SWD estimates. For a station that is strongly influenced by site-specific multipath error, the anisotropic component of SWD can reach up to 4.3 mm in equivalent precipitable water vapour. The result also showed that the spatio-temporal changes in the SWD as measured by GPS closely reflected the moisture field estimated from a numerical weather prediction model (ERA5 reanalysis) associated with this weather event.Öğe Characterization of the co-seismic pattern and slip distribution of the February 06, 2023, Kahramanmaras, (Turkey) earthquakes (Mw 7.7 and Mw 7.6) with a dense GNSS network(09.11.2023) Özkan, Ali; Solak, Halil İbrahim; Tiryakioğlu, İbrahim; Şentürk, Murat Doruk; Aktuğ, Bahadır; Gezgin, Cemil; Poyraz, Fatih; Duman, Hüseyin; Masson, Frederic; Uslular, Göksu; Yiğit, Cemal Özer; Yavaşoğlu, Hasan HakanTwo consecutive earthquakes with the magnitudes of Mw 7.7 and 7.6 (February 06, 2023) occurred on the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) segments and unfortunately resulted in significant devastation to human life and cities in Turkey and Syria. In this study, we aimed to analyse the co-seismic displacements and fault slip distributions of these seismic events. Our unique high-spatial-resolution Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) network (comprising 73 permanent GNSS stations and 40 campaign observation sites), providing the recent geodetic dataset for the region, allows better constraint of the co-seismic surface displacements and slip distributions of both earthquakes. The three largest total displacements were identified as 466 cm, 362 cm, and 360 cm. The Fault interactions along the EAFZ were obvious during the consecutive earthquakes. The ruptures mainly occurred in the left-lateral components of the fault segments, with the maximum slips of 7.25 m and 9.43 m for the first event along the EAFZ and the second event on the cardak Fault, respectively.Öğe GPS + Galileo + BDS-3 medium to long-range single-baseline RTK: an alternative for network-based RTK?(17.12.2023) Öğütçü, Sermet; Alçay, Salih; Özdemir, Behlül Numan; Duman, Hüseyin; Koray, Ülkünur; Konukseven, Ceren; Bilal, Nesibe GülThanks to the development of the real-time kinematic (RTK) algorithm and the emerging Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), especially for Galileo and BeiDou-3, reliable positioning accuracy for medium and long-baseline RTK became possible globally. Moreover, with the development of the GNSS receiver hardware, baseline length limitations due to radio-based communications are removed thanks to internet-based communication. In this work, single-baseline RTK, incorporated partial ambiguity resolution with troposphere and ionosphere weighting, using GPS (G), Galileo (E), BeiDou-3 (C3) and multi-GNSS (GE and GEC3), is conducted with real GNSS data of EUREF Permanent GNSS network under three different cutoff angles (10 degrees, 20 degrees, and 30 degrees) for six different lengths of baselines (similar to 50, similar to 150, similar to 250, similar to 350, similar to 450, and similar to 550 km). The results show that the multi-GNSS RTK solution significantly contributed to the positioning accuracy and convergence time of the single-system RTK solutions. Based on the results, non-available epoch-wise solutions for the high-degree cutoff angles are more obvious for the single-system RTK, whereas multi-GNSS solutions provide 100% solutions for each cutoff angle and baseline. The results indicate that instantaneous and a few epochs single-epoch ambiguity resolution is feasible for 50, 150, 250 and 350 km baseline lengths for multi-GNSS RTK. Based on the positioning results, horizontal-vertical positioning improvements of multi-GNSS RTK (GEC3) compared with the single-system GPS RTK are found as 50%-37%, 40%-35%, 55%-47%, 53%-54%, 57%-49% and 57%-49% for 50, 150, 250, 350, 450 and 550 km, respectively, under a 10 degrees cutoff angle. For 20 degrees and 30 degrees cutoff angles, the accuracy improvements are much higher. The convergence time improvements (n/e/u) of multi-GNSS RTK (GEC3) compared with the single-system GPS RTK are found as 86/92/75%, 77/67/72%, 75/77/83%, 53/56/52%, 69/49/62%, and 52/45/39% for 50, 150, 250, 350, 450 and 550 km, respectively, under a 10 degrees cutoff angleÖğe 6 Şubat 2023 Kahramanmaraş depremleri (Mw 7.7 ve Mw 7.6) sonrasında Türkiye’de meydana gelen depremlerin (Mw?4) coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ile mekânsal analizi(01.12.2023) Demirel, Yasin; Türk, Tarıkİnsanlar çok eski çağlardan beri doğal afetler ile karşılaşmakta ve doğal afetlerin oluşturduğu sorunlara maruz kalmaktadır. Ülkemiz bulunduğu topoğrafik, jeolojik ve iklim koşullarına bağlı olarak doğal afetlerle sürekli olarak karşı karşıya olup ülkemizde en çok can kaybına sebep olan doğal afet türlerinden birisi de depremlerdir. Bu nedenle ülkemizde meydana gelen depremlerin sürekli olarak analiz edilmesi ve bu depremler nedeniyle ortaya çıkan problemlerin çözümü için ileriye yönelik tedbirlerin alınması hayati öneme sahiptir. Bu çalışmada Türkiye’de 6 Şubat 2023 ile 8 Nisan 2023 tarihleri arasında meydana gelen Afet ve Acil Durum Yönetimi Başkanlığı (AFAD) kayıtlarına göre Mw 4’den büyük olan depremlerin meydana geldiği konum dikkate alınarak mekânsal dağılımları ilçe sınırı seviyesinde CBS ortamında analiz edilmiş ve mekânsal istatistiksel testler (Getis-Ord General G, Global Moran’s I, Anselin Local Moran’s I ve Getis-Ord Gi*) kullanılarak kümelenmeleri ortaya konulmuştur. Böylece mevcut depremler hesaba katılarak ileriye yönelik kentsel planlama çalışmaları ve alınması gereken önlemler konularında karar vericilere sağlanacak destek bakımından önemli sonuçlar elde edilmiştir.Öğe Türkiye’de 2015 ile 2022 yılları arasında meydana gelen orman yangınlarının coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ile zamansal ve mekânsal analizi(01.11.2023) Türk, Tarık; Demirel, YasinDünyada orman yangınlarının can ve mal kaybına neden olan sosyal, ekonomik ve ekolojik olmak üzere maddi ve manevi birçok sonuçları vardır. Son yıllarda dünya genelinde orman yangınlarında hem sıklık hem de büyüklük açısından önemli bir artış gözlemlenmektedir. Bu nedenle ekolojik düzenin istikrarlı bir şekilde devam etmesi için orman yangınlarının analiz edilmesi ve buna karşı gerekli tedbirlerin alınması son derece önemlidir. Bu bağlamda orman yangınlarının zaman içerisindeki mekânsal dağılımının modellenmesi ve risk faktörü oluşturan bölgelerin incelenmesi kritik öneme sahiptir. Bu çalışmada Türkiye’de 2015 ile 2022 yılları arasında meydana gelen orman yangınlarının il sınırı seviyesinde mekânsal ve zamansal dağılımı yangının coğrafi konum ve çıkış nedeni arasındaki ilişki dikkate alınarak Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemi ortamında analiz edilmiş ve mekânsal istatistiksel testler (Global Moran’s I, Anselin Local Moran’s I ve Getis-Ord Gi*) kullanılarak yıl bazındaki kümelenmeler ortaya konmuştur. Böylece orman yangınlarına yönelik alınması gereken önlemler ve karar vericilere sağlanacak destekler konularında önemli sonuçlar elde edilmiştir.Öğe Spatiotemporal and seasonality analysis of sheep and goat pox (SGP) disease outbreaks in Turkey between 2010 and 2019(04.02.2023) Türk, TarıkSheep and goat pox (SGP) is a highly infectious disease with a high case fatality rate. It causes serious economic losses and decreases productivity in infected facilities and contact areas. As in many countries of the world, SGP outbreaks reported from Turkey to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) continue to threaten animal health. Therefore, studies that will guide the production of effective policies to prevent and control SGP are extremely important. This study aims at evaluating the spatiotemporal distribution of SGP outbreaks by geographical information system (GIS)–based analyses. In accordance with this purpose, spatiotemporal scan analyses were applied to reveal the spatiotemporal distribution pattern and transmission of SGP outbreaks reported in Turkey between 2010 and 2019. Space–time cluster analysis revealed 4 several clusters, indicating geographic areas at the highest risk. Spatiotemporal clusters were 6 to 11 times more likely to be exposed to SGP than the general distribution. The average spatiotemporal density of outbreaks in clusters was estimated as 0.20 ± 0.07 outbreaks per 1000 km2 per month. Seasonal analysis and time series analysis showed similar findings. The seasonality of SGP was mainly defined in the winter (from December to February) when the seasonal adjusted factor (SAF) was at a peak of 504.6. In addition, February had the highest SAF with 7.1. Directional distribution analysis showed that the transmission of SGP was oriented between northeast (NE)–southwest (SW) and northwest (NW)–southeast (SE) and that distribution was changed every 2 years. These findings present a basis for the effective monitoring and prevention of SGP and provide valuable information to policymakers.Öğe Accuracy assessment of UAV-post-processing kinematic (PPK) and UAV-traditional (with ground control points) georeferencing methods(Springer, 04.06.2022) Türk, Tarık; Tunalıoğlu, Nursu; Erdoğan, Bahattin; Öcalan, Taylan; Gürtürk, MertThe use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in photogrammetric mapping/surveying facilities has increased recently due to the developments on photogrammetric instruments and algorithms that enhance high-quality final products (orthoimages, digital surface model-DSM, etc.) in fast, accurate, and economical way. The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of a UAV-based post-processing kinematic (PPK) solution. To do that, two methods were implemented with PPK solution and georeferencing with ground control points (GCPs). According to the statistical results, root mean square error (RMSE) values obtained from the GCPs and PPK solutions in the horizontal component are 6.5 cm and 5.4 cm, respectively. The RMSE values in the vertical component (ellipsoidal heights) were obtained as 4.8 cm (GCPs) and 5.2 cm (PPK), respectively. The results show that UAV-PPK method can also be used to produce photogrammetric products where high accuracy (≤ 10 cm) is required without GCPs. In addition, the results obtained regarding the use of this method clearly show that it can be applied in many different fields such as agriculture, forestry, natural disasters, and geomatics.Öğe Non-destructive above ground biomass estimation of individual tree species using airborne LiDAR data for combating global warming(15.07.2022) Baş, Nuray; Gürsoy, Önder; Türk, Tarık; Atun, Rutkay; Koç, KenanBiomass is a globally utilised strategy to reduce the effects of global warming. The amount of carbon from biomass requires comprehensive knowledge of which tree species absorb carbon best. The airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technique can determine biomass in different tree species. The aim of this study was to develop a method for assessing biomass for individual tree species using allometric equation method in Black Sea Region of Turkey. This study focused on two important parameters which is diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height during the process. LiDAR derived canopy height model (CHM) was used to extract tree parameter. The relationship between the obtained biomass amounts and the values measured in the field was revealed. As a result of this, R2 and RMSE values for Site-1 are 0.89 m (RMSE = 53.56 kg/tree), 0.65 m (RMSE = 99.36 kg/tree) for Site-2 and 0.99 m (RMSE = 801.55 kg/tree) for Site-3 respectively.Öğe The velocity of aseismic surface deformations between 2016-2020 detected by precise leveling surveys of the Akşehir Simav Fault System in the Bolvadin district, western Anatolia(Instituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, INGV, 2022) İbrahim Tiryakioğlu; Kaan Çalışkan; Cemal Ozer Yigit; KEMAL ÖZGÜR Hastaoğlu; FATİH POYRAZ; Tamer Baybura; Eralp Gürlek; Çağlar ÖzkaymakIn this research, the aim was to examine the aseismic surface deformations that occurred in the Bolvadin district center with a precise leveling technique. For this purpose, a geodetic leveling net-work consisting of eight profiles and 81 benchmarks was installed in the region, and five campaigns of precise leveling measurements were performed between 2016-2020. As a result of the evaluations of the leveling measurements, deformations over time were calculated at each benchmark. In con-sequence of the evaluation of the five campaign measurements, the deformation amount increased continuously from 2016 to 2020. When the adjusted height differences between 2019-2020 were examined, it was observed that the deformation amount of the previous years doubled. Additionally, deformation rates between –20 and –90mm/year were estimated using the Kalman filtering meth-ods. According to the current data obtained, the total vertical displacement amount has reached approximately 1 m and the deformation continues todayÖğe A new approach considering temporal correlations for GPS campaign time series(Mayıs 2022) Duman, Huseyin; Sanli, Dogan UğurGPS campaign-mode surveys are periodically collected measurements and their time series has a considerable percentage of data gaps unlike continuous time series. Studying error characteristics of a time series is imperative to compute reliable parameter uncertainties. The power-law process can best describe the background noise for a GPS continuous time series and may be introduced into the analysis through well-known methods. However, the power-law process cannot be applied successfully over GPS campaign time series due to the constraints mentioned above. Here we demonstrate a new approach enabling one to project the stochastic properties of campaign time series into the stochastic domain of the permanent stations of International GNSS Service (IGS) network. The stochastic domain, the combination of white noise (WN) and flicker noise (FN), was obtained from the power spectrum of a continuous time series consisting of truncated daily RINEX observations. We implemented it in the Python3 environment as an open-source package called GPS/GNSS campaign time series analysis (GCTS v1.0). The analysis showed that the velocity uncertainties may be, on average, underestimated by a factor of 2 when assuming the WN-only noise model using campaign data from the UNAVCO data archive collected in San Bernardino and its vicinity. Moreover, to reveal the progress of the new approach, we modelled buried screw dislocations of the San Jacinto, the San Andreas, and parallel faults in their vicinity in elastic half-space. When using the new approach with the combination of WN and FN instead of the WN-only model, we achieved a significant improvement of 15% on average in the chi-square value. Our outcomes showed that the noise process should be considered even for campaign time series. The proposed approach facilitates the analysis of GPS campaign time series even if they include considerable data gaps.Öğe Using the T-EFA method in a cellular automata-based urban growth simulation's calibration step(Wiley Online Library, 21 Mayıs 2022) Ayazlı, İsmail Ercüment; Yakup, Ahmet Emir; Bilen, ÖmerChanges in land cover driven by urban sprawl increase the threat of urbanization of forests and agricultural lands. Therefore, monitoring urban sprawl by creating simulation models is frequently carried out to understand sustainable city management. Cellular automata-based models are mostly preferred to reduce the damage led by urban sprawl, and the SLEUTH model is the most well known. Several methods have been developed for the SLEUTH model calibration step, such as optimum SLEUTH metrics and total exploratory factor analysis (T-EFA), to improve the model accuracy. This study aims to create a high-accuracy urban growth simulation model using low-resolution data, investigate the T-EFA method's success in the calibration step, and find the urban sprawl effects on land cover change. Istanbul was selected as our study area due to witnessing its tremendous urban sprawl since the 1950s. According to our results, the urban growth that occurred between 2000 and 2018 could be defined more closely to reality using the T-EFA method, and Istanbul will continue to grow until 2040, with approximately 428.7 km2 of agricultural lands, 553.4 km2 of forests, and 0.1 km2 of wetlands being transformed to urban. In addition, the geologically risky areas under threat of urbanization will increase by 60% between 2018 and 2040.Öğe Investigation of accuracy of PPP and PPP-AR methods for direct georeferencing in UAV photogrammetry(11.10.2022) Öcalan, Taylan; Türk, Tarık; Tunalıoğlu, Nursu; Gürtürk, MertTraditionally, photogrammetric product accuracy at cm level is obtained with Ground Control Points (GCP) in UAV photogrammetry. In recent years, UAVs equipped with Post-Processing Kinematic & Real-Time Kinematic (PPK/RTK) have become widespread. Accuracy in cm-level can be obtained with relative/differential positioning with these equipment. On the other hand, PPP (Precise Point Positioning), which is a special type of absolute positioning, is used effectively in many applications. In this study, performances of PPP and PPP-AR (PPP positioning with ambiguity resolution) solutions of kinematic GNSS data obtained from UAVs were investigated and compared with PPK solutions based on relative positioning. Especially, the performance and potential of the PPP-AR approach in terms of quality and accuracy of the products generated in UAV-photogrammetry has been demonstrated. Thus, this study can significantly contribute to subjects such as the production of fast, accurate, and cost-effective products with UAV photogrammetry, earth sciences applications, precise agriculture, sustainable forest management, forest planning.Öğe Spatiotemporal Analysis of Cardiovascular Disease Mortality with Geographical Information Systems(2021) Türk, TarıkIn the world, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are known as the type of disease with the highest mortality. The mortality rate for this disease is very high in Turkey. Therefore, studies on this disease may direct the activities to be carried out by public health workers/policy makers and effective surveillance studies. In this context, GIS-based spatial analysis offers critical tools to reveal the spatial epidemiology of the disease by modeling the spatial distribution of cardiovascular disease over time and to investigate the risk factors. In this study, it was aimed to analyze CVD mortality spatiotemporally with GIS-based methodologies and to reveal preliminary information on whether deaths from CVD are related to geographic location and environmental risk factors. Accordingly, CVD mortality that occurred in Turkey at province level between 2009 and 2018 was analyzed through spatial statistical tests (Global Moran's I, Getis-Ord General G, Anselin Local Morans I and Getis-Ord Gi*) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). The results of spatiotemporal analysis were evaluated. Mortality caused by CVD was examined spatiotemporally with the help of the developed user interface program and spatially significant clusters of CVD were determined. Based on our findings, this study can contribute to understand the spatial nature of the disease and to provide the decision makers with required information on surveillance studies.
